MICROBIOLOGIA

Academic Year 2026/2027 - Teacher: ROBERTO MARIA ANTONIO DI MARCO

Expected Learning Outcomes

The course aims to provide the fundamental knowledge of general and applied microbiology required to understand the structural, physiological, metabolic, and genetic characteristics of microorganisms, their interactions with the host and the environment, and the mechanisms underlying pathogenicity and the spread of infections. The course also aims to provide the knowledge required to understand the principles of microbiological diagnostics, the action of and resistance to antimicrobial drugs, sterilization, disinfection, and the control of microbial contamination, with particular reference to pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food products and to the principles of the HACCP system.

Knowledge and understanding

By the end of the course, students will be able to describe and explain the structure, physiology, metabolism, growth, and main genetic mechanisms of microorganisms, and to understand the main modes of interaction between microorganisms and the host, the mechanisms of pathogenicity and virulence, the modes of transmission of infections, and the main host defence mechanisms. They will also acquire knowledge of the human microbiota, conditions of eubiosis and dysbiosis, and the role of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics. They will be able to describe the principles of microbiological diagnostics, microbial cultivation, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, as well as the principles and applications of sterilization, disinfection, and the control of microbial contamination. Students will also acquire knowledge of the significance of microorganisms in foods, the main microbiological contaminations associated with foods, and the principles of the HACCP system. Finally, they will be able to describe the biological characteristics, pathogenicity, and main associated diseases of the principal bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa pathogenic to humans.

Applying knowledge and understanding

By the end of the course, students will be able to apply the knowledge acquired to relate the biological characteristics of microorganisms to their ability to survive, spread, and cause infections. They will also be able to interpret the relationships among microorganisms, the host, and the environment and to apply microbiological principles to the assessment of contamination of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food products, identifying the general criteria for selecting appropriate methods of sterilization, disinfection, and microbiological control.

Making judgements

By the end of the course, students will be able to assess microbiological issues related to the quality and safety of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food products, microbial contamination, sterilization, disinfection, and procedures for the prevention and control of microbiological risk.

Communication skills

By the end of the course, students will be able to clearly and coherently present the fundamental principles of general and applied microbiology, using the specific terminology of the discipline appropriately. They will also be able to assess microbiological aspects related to the production of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food products, establishing coherent connections among the different topics covered in the course.

Learning skills

Students will be able to independently explore the topics covered during the course through the critical consultation of textbooks, teaching materials, and relevant scientific sources. Artificial intelligence may also be used as a study support tool, in compliance with current regulations, including those concerning copyright and the use of intellectual works, as described in section 5.1 of the guidelines (https://www.unict.it/it/ateneo/cidia-centro-l%E2%80%99informatica-la-digitalizzazione-e-l%E2%80%99intelligenza-artificiale).

According to Article 12 of the Academic Regulations concerning University Educational Credits (CFU), the standard workload corresponding to one credit is 25 hours of total student commitment. This may include 7 hours of lectures or equivalent teaching activities, with the remaining hours devoted to individual study; at least 12 and no more than 15 hours may be devoted to classroom exercises or equivalent supervised activities (laboratory work), with the remaining hours devoted to individual study and personal reworking.

Course Structure

The course is delivered primarily through lectures, which fall within the framework of Direct Instruction (Didattica Erogativa, DE), aimed at promoting the acquisition and understanding of the principles of general and applied microbiology. Teaching activities are organized according to a progressive approach that begins with the structural, physiological, metabolic, and genetic characteristics of microorganisms, then moves to the study of their interactions with the host and the environment, and subsequently to applied aspects of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food-related interest. Presentations and images are used during lectures to facilitate the understanding of microbiological processes and their applications. Particular attention is given to the control of microbial contamination, sterilization and disinfection, the microbiological safety of products, and the principles of the HACCP system. This approach promotes the acquisition of knowledge, the ability to establish connections among the different course topics, and the application of microbiological knowledge to a professional context, thereby contributing to the achievement of the expected learning outcomes.

If the course is delivered in blended or remote mode, appropriate adjustments may be made to the above in order to ensure consistency with the programme set out in this syllabus.

Required Prerequisites

Basic knowledge of biology is considered important for understanding the course content, with particular reference to cell structure and functions and the organization of genetic material.

Attendance of Lessons

Attendance is mandatory, as required by the academic regulations of the Degree Programme. Absences are permitted for no more than 30% of the total teaching hours, considering all modes of course delivery (https://www.dsf.unict.it/it/corsi/l-29_sfa/regolamento-didattico).

Detailed Course Content

Introduction to Microbiology

General classification of microorganisms: Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya.
Microorganisms and their natural environments.
The impact of microorganisms on humans.
Discoveries in the field of microbiology.

The Prokaryotic Cell

Size, shape, and aggregation patterns.
Fundamental structures (nucleoid, cytoplasmic membrane, cell wall).
Accessory structures (capsule and glycocalyx, pili and fimbriae, flagella and bacterial motility).
Structure and synthesis of peptidoglycan. Outer envelopes of Gram-negative bacteria and lipopolysaccharide. Outer envelopes of Gram-positive bacteria and teichoic acids. Permeability and the periplasmic space. Outer envelopes of mycobacteria.

Microbial Genetics

General characteristics of the bacterial genome.
Chromosome and plasmids.
Mutations and transposable elements: insertion sequences, transposons, invertible elements.
Intercellular transfer of genetic material: transformation, transduction, bacterial conjugation.

Nutrition and Metabolism of Microorganisms

Physical and environmental factors affecting bacterial growth.
Aerobiosis and anaerobiosis.
Energy sources for microorganisms.
Respiration and fermentation pathways.

Bacterial Reproduction and Growth

Cell division.
Growth curve of a bacterial population.
Survival strategies (spore and biofilm).

Microorganism–Host Interaction

Biological associations and interactions between parasite and host.
Sources of infection.
Transmission of diseases.
The infectious process (pathogenicity and virulence factors).
Pathogenic action: adhesion and penetration.

Host Response to Infections and Immunity

Host defences against infections (innate and adaptive immunity).
Other defence mechanisms (inflammation and fever).
Overcoming host defence mechanisms.
Passive immunization (immunoglobulins and antisera).
Active immunization (vaccines).

Human Microbiota and Microbiome

Composition and physiology of the human microbiota.
Role of the microbiota in different body sites.
Bidirectional relationship between the microbiota and other organs (gut–brain axis).
Dysbiosis and its contribution to the onset of diseases and metabolic disorders.
Probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics.

Principles of Microbiological Diagnostics

Direct and indirect identification of pathogens.
Microscopic examination and staining techniques.
Characteristics and composition of culture media and their classification.
Assessment of the susceptibility of microorganisms to antibacterial drugs: dilution and diffusion methods.

Sterilization and Disinfection

Sterilization using physical, chemical, and mechanical methods and sterility controls.
Sterilization in the pharmaceutical field (pharmaceutical preparations required to be sterile, sterility controls, bacterial endotoxin testing).
Assessment of microbial contamination of non-sterile products.
Disinfectants, antiseptics, and preservatives.
Good Preparation Practices for medicinal products (requirements for the environment, personnel, and raw materials).

Systematic Bacteriology of the Main Bacterial Pathogens of Humans

Taxonomy, characteristics, pathogenicity, main diseases, antibiotic susceptibility, and antibiotic resistance of the genera Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Enterococcus, Neisseria, Bordetella, Legionella, Brucella, Corynebacterium, Helicobacter, Mycobacterium, Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Helicobacter, Mycoplasma, Chlamydiaceae, Rickettsiales, Spirochetales, Clostridium, and Bacillus. Classification and mechanisms of action of the main antibacterial drugs.

Viruses

Structure, characteristics, and classification of viruses.
Replication strategies and mechanisms of the different classes of DNA and RNA viruses.
Pathogenesis of viral infections and damage to the host cell.
Host defences against viral infections (interferon).
Bacteriophages.
Cultivation of viruses.
Mechanisms of action and spectrum of activity of the main antiviral drugs.

Systematic Virology of the Main Viral Pathogens of Humans

Taxonomy, characteristics, pathogenicity, main diseases, prevention, and treatment of the genera Poxvirus, Herpesvirus, Adenovirus, Papillomavirus, Paramyxovirus, Togavirus, Orthomyxovirus, Rhabdovirus, Rhinovirus, Poliovirus, Picornaviridae, Papovaviridae, Parvoviridae, Coronavirus, Filovirus, Lentivirus (HIV) and the major hepatitis viruses (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, HEV, HGV).

Fungi

Taxonomy, classification, morphology, and reproduction.
Classification of mycoses (superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic).
Immunosuppression and opportunistic mycoses.
Fungal toxicology (mushroom poisoning and mycotoxins).
The main fungi of medical interest: Candida, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, dimorphic fungi, dermatophytes, zygomycetes.
Mechanisms of action and spectrum of activity of the main antifungal drugs.

Protozoa

Taxonomy, classification, morphology, and reproduction.
Main parasitic protozoa of medical interest: intestinal and genitourinary flagellates, haemoflagellates, amoebae, sporozoans, ciliates.
Mechanisms of action and spectrum of activity of the main antiprotozoal drugs.

Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases Associated with Climate Change and Globalization

Food Microbiology and the HACCP System

Significance and role of microorganisms in foods.
Fermented and non-fermented foods.
Foodborne infections.
Principles and objectives of the HACCP system.

Textbook Information

Carlone N., Pompei R., Tullio V., Microbiologia Farmaceutica, 3rd edition, EdiSES Università.

Course Planning

	Subjects	Text References
1	The course is organized according to a progressive structure, beginning with the acquisition of the fundamentals of general microbiology and moving towards the study of interactions among microorganisms, the host, and the environment, as well as the main applications of microbiology in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food-related fields. Fundamentals of general microbiology The first part of the course provides the knowledge required to understand the structural and functional organization of microorganisms, the main metabolic and genetic processes, microbial growth, and survival strategies. This knowledge forms the basis for understanding the subsequent aspects of applied microbiology. Microorganisms, host, and environment A second area is devoted to the relationships between microorganisms and the human host, ranging from colonization and transmission to mechanisms of pathogenicity and host response. The relationships among microbiota, health, and disease are also considered, together with the influence of environmental factors on the survival and spread of microorganisms. Microbiological diagnostics and control The course then addresses the applied aspects of microbiology, including the principles of microorganism identification and cultivation, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and methods for sterilization, disinfection, and contamination control. Particular attention is given to applications in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical fields and to the microbiological safety of products. General and systematic bacteriology The study of bacteria progresses from the general principles of antibacterial drug action and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance to the systematic bacteriology of the main human pathogens, integrating microbiological characteristics, pathogenicity, associated diseases, and antimicrobial susceptibility. General and systematic virology Virology is developed starting from the general principles of viral structure, replication, and pathogenesis, and then proceeds to the systematic study of the main human pathogenic viruses and the principles of antiviral drug action. Mycology and protozoology The study of fungi and protozoa begins with their respective general biological characteristics and progresses to medically relevant aspects, including the main associated diseases and the principles of antifungal and antiprotozoal therapy. Food microbiology and food safety The final part of the course is devoted to the role of microorganisms in foods, microbial contamination and foodborne infections, fermented and non-fermented foods, and the principles and objectives of the HACCP system. This section integrates the microbiological knowledge acquired with its application to the prevention and control of microbiological risk in the food sector.

Learning Assessment

Learning Assessment Procedures

Learning assessment is carried out through a final oral examination, aimed at verifying the achievement of the expected learning outcomes and the level of knowledge and understanding of the course contents. The assessment takes into account the accuracy, completeness, and relevance of the answers, the ability to apply the knowledge acquired, and the ability to establish connections among the different topics of the programme. Particular attention is given to the ability to relate the biological characteristics of microorganisms to their capacity to survive, spread, and cause infections, and to understand and interpret the relationships among microorganisms, the host, and the environment. The ability to apply the microbiological principles of sterilization and disinfection in the context of the microbiological control of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food products is also assessed, together with the understanding of the principles of the HACCP system. The assessment also considers analytical and synthesis skills, the appropriate use of scientific terminology, and the clarity and coherence of the presentation.

The final grade is expressed on a 30-point scale and takes into account the overall quality and completeness of the knowledge acquired, the ability to apply and integrate it, independent judgement, the ability to establish connections among the different topics, and the quality of the presentation.

The following criteria are applied for the assignment of the final grade:

Exam not passed: insufficient knowledge of the fundamental course contents, little or no ability to use the specific terminology of the discipline, and inadequate ability to apply the knowledge acquired.

Grade 18–21: essential knowledge of the course contents, limited ability to integrate information and perform critical analysis, sufficiently clear presentation, and limited command of scientific terminology.

Grade 22–25: fair knowledge of the course contents, adequate ability to integrate information and perform analysis, although not always in a fully coherent manner, and a fairly clear presentation with a reasonable use of specific terminology.

Grade 26–28: good knowledge of the course contents, good ability to integrate information, perform critical analysis, and establish connections among topics, with a clear presentation and appropriate use of scientific terminology.

Grade 29–30 with honours: thorough and comprehensive knowledge of the course contents, a high ability to integrate information and perform critical analysis, autonomy in applying knowledge to microbiological issues of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food-related interest, and excellent communication skills and command of scientific terminology.

Exam dates are published on the Degree Programme website: https://www.dsf.unict.it/it/corsi/l-29_sfa/calendario-esami.

Learning assessment may also be carried out online, should circumstances require it.

To ensure equal opportunities and in compliance with current regulations, students concerned may request an individual meeting to define any appropriate compensatory and/or dispensatory measures, in relation to the learning objectives of the course and their specific needs. Students may also contact Prof. Santina Chiechio (santina.chiechio@unict.it), the CInAP representative for the Department of Drug and Health Sciences.

Examples of frequently asked questions and / or exercises

Describe the growth curve of a bacterial population and explain which physical and environmental factors can influence it.
Explain the stages of the infectious process and the role of virulence factors.
Describe the human microbiota and explain the meaning of dysbiosis and eubiosis, as well as the role of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics.
Compare sterilization and disinfection, describing their main methods and applications in the pharmaceutical field.
Describe the biological characteristics, main pathogenicity factors, and associated diseases of one of the medically relevant microorganisms covered during the course.

Degree Course in

Applied Pharmaceutical Sciences