MICROBIOLOGIA FARMACEUTICA M - Z

Academic Year 2026/2027 - Teacher: DARIA NICOLOSI

Expected Learning Outcomes

The course aims to provide fundamental knowledge of general and pharmaceutical microbiology, necessary to understand the structural, physiological, metabolic, and genetic characteristics of microorganisms, their interactions with the host, and the mechanisms underlying pathogenicity and the transmission of infections. The course also aims to provide the knowledge required to understand the principles of microbiological diagnostics, the mechanisms of action of and resistance to antimicrobial drugs, methods of sterilization, disinfection, and control of microbial contamination, as well as the microbiological aspects relevant to the preparation and quality of pharmaceutical products.

Knowledge and understanding

By the end of the course, students will be able to describe and explain the structure, physiology, metabolism, growth, and main genetic mechanisms of microorganisms, understanding the significance of mutations and genetic transfer in microbial variability and in the acquisition of antimicrobial resistance. They will also be able to describe the main types of microorganism–host interactions, the mechanisms of pathogenicity and virulence, the routes of transmission of infections, and the main host defence mechanisms. They will also understand the composition and functions of the human microbiota, the significance of dysbiosis, and the principles underlying probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics. Students will acquire basic knowledge of microbiological diagnostics, microbial culture techniques, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. They will also be able to describe the principles and applications of sterilization and disinfection, as well as the microbiological criteria relevant to the quality control of pharmaceutical products and Good Preparation Practices. Finally, they will be able to classify and describe the biological and pathogenic characteristics, the main diseases, and the methods for prevention and treatment of infections caused by the most common bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa of medical interest, as well as the mechanisms of action of the main antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antiprotozoal drugs.

Applying knowledge and understanding

By the end of the course, students will be able to apply the knowledge acquired to understand the relationships between the biological characteristics of microorganisms, their ability to survive and spread, and their pathogenic potential. They will also be able to relate microbial genetic mechanisms to antimicrobial resistance and to associate the main infectious agents with their routes of transmission and the diseases they cause. They will also be able to identify the general criteria for selecting appropriate sterilization and disinfection methods and to apply this knowledge to the assessment of the main problems related to microbial contamination of pharmaceutical products and of the environments in which they are prepared.

Making judgements

By the end of the course, students will be able to critically analyse the relationships between the biological characteristics of microorganisms, their pathogenicity, routes of transmission, and the host response. They will also be able to interpret the main mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance and critically assess their implications for treatment efficacy and the spread of antimicrobial resistance. With regard to their future professional activity as pharmacists, students will be able to critically assess the importance of the appropriate and responsible use of antimicrobial drugs, recognizing the pharmacist’s role in promoting proper adherence to therapy, preventing the inappropriate use of antimicrobials, and providing the public with scientifically accurate information. They will also be able to assess microbiological issues related to the quality and safety of pharmaceutical products, microbial contamination, sterilization, disinfection, and compliance with Good Preparation Practices.

Communication skills

By the end of the course, students will be able to clearly, coherently, and scientifically present the fundamental principles of general and pharmaceutical microbiology, using the specific terminology of the discipline appropriately. They will also be able to describe and discuss the characteristics of the main pathogenic microorganisms, the mechanisms of pathogenicity and antimicrobial resistance, the principles of microbiological diagnostics, and microbiological control and sterilization procedures, establishing coherent connections among the different topics covered in the course.

Learning skills

Students will be able to independently explore the topics covered during the course through the critical consultation of textbooks, teaching materials, and relevant scientific sources. Artificial Intelligence (AI) may also be used as a study-support tool, in compliance with current regulations, including those concerning copyright and the use of intellectual works, as described in Section 5.1 of the guidelines (https://www.unict.it/it/ateneo/cidia-centro-l%E2%80%99informatica-la-digitalizzazione-e-l%E2%80%99intelligenza-artificiale).

According to Article 12 of the University Academic Regulations (RDA) concerning University Educational Credits (CFU), the standard overall student workload corresponding to one credit is 25 hours. This may include 7 hours of lectures or equivalent teaching activities, with the remaining hours devoted to individual study; or at least 12 and no more than 15 hours of classroom exercises or equivalent supervised activities (laboratory sessions), with the remaining hours devoted to individual study and personal revision.

Course Structure

The course is delivered primarily through lectures, which fall within the framework of Direct Instruction (Didattica Erogativa, DE), aimed at fostering the acquisition and understanding of the principles of general and pharmaceutical microbiology in healthcare and professional contexts. Teaching activities are organized according to a progressive approach that promotes not only the acquisition of knowledge, but also the ability to establish connections among the different course topics and to apply microbiological knowledge to the understanding of issues relevant to pharmaceutical practice, with particular reference to the appropriate use of antimicrobials, antimicrobial resistance, microbial contamination, sterilization, and disinfection. This approach contributes to the achievement of the expected learning outcomes.

If the course is delivered in blended or remote mode, appropriate adjustments may be made to the above in order to ensure consistency with the programme set out in this syllabus.

Required Prerequisites

Basic knowledge of biology is considered important for understanding the course content, with particular reference to cell structure and functions and the organization of genetic material.

Attendance of Lessons

Attendance is mandatory, as required by the academic regulations of the Degree Programme. Absences are permitted for no more than 30% of the total teaching hours, considering all modes of course delivery (https://www.dsf.unict.it/it/corsi/lm-13/regolamento-didattico).

Detailed Course Content

Introduction to microbiology

General classification of microorganisms: Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya.
Microorganisms and their natural habitats.
The impact of microorganisms on humans.
Discoveries in the field of microbiology.

The prokaryotic cell

Size, shape, and aggregation patterns.
Fundamental structures (nucleoid, cytoplasmic membrane, cell wall).
Accessory structures (capsule and glycocalyx, pili and fimbriae, flagella and bacterial motility).
Structure and synthesis of peptidoglycan. Outer envelopes of Gram-negative bacteria and lipopolysaccharide. Outer envelopes of Gram-positive bacteria and teichoic acids. Permeability and the periplasmic space. Outer envelopes of mycobacteria.

Microbial genetics

General characteristics of the bacterial genome.
Chromosome and plasmids.
Mutations and transposable elements: insertion sequences, transposons, invertible elements.
Intercellular transfer of genetic material: transformation, transduction, bacterial conjugation.

Nutrition and metabolism of microorganisms

Physical and environmental factors affecting bacterial growth.
Aerobiosis and anaerobiosis.
Energy sources for microorganisms.
Respiration and fermentation pathways.

Bacterial reproduction and growth

Cell division.
Growth curve of a bacterial population.
Survival strategies (spore and biofilm).

Microorganism–host interaction

Biological associations and interactions between parasite and host.
Sources of infection.
Transmission of diseases.
The infectious process (pathogenicity and virulence factors).
Pathogenic action: adhesion and penetration.

Host response to infections and immunity

Host defences against infections (innate and adaptive immunity).
Other defence mechanisms (inflammation and fever).
Overcoming host defence mechanisms.
Passive immunization (immunoglobulins and antisera).
Active immunization (vaccines).

Human microbiota and microbiome

Composition and physiology of the human microbiota.
Role of the microbiota in different body sites.
Bidirectional relationship between the microbiota and other organs (gut–brain axis).
Dysbiosis and its contribution to the onset of diseases and metabolic disorders.
Probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics.

Principles of microbiological diagnostics

Direct and indirect identification of pathogens.
Microscopic examination and staining techniques.
Characteristics and composition of culture media and their classification.
Assessment of the susceptibility of microorganisms to antibacterial drugs: dilution and diffusion methods.

Sterilization and disinfection

Sterilization using physical, chemical, and mechanical methods and sterility controls.
Sterilization in the pharmaceutical field (pharmaceutical preparations required to be sterile, sterility controls, bacterial endotoxin testing).
Assessment of microbial contamination of non-sterile products.
Disinfectants, antiseptics, and preservatives.
Good Preparation Practices for medicinal products (requirements for the environment, personnel, and raw materials).

Antibacterial drugs

Classification and mechanisms of action of the main antibacterial drugs.
Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics.
Basic principles of the epidemiology of infectious diseases.
Community-acquired and nosocomial infections.

Systematic bacteriology of the main bacterial pathogens of humans

Taxonomy, characteristics, pathogenicity, main diseases, antibiotic susceptibility, and antibiotic resistance of the genera Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Enterococcus, Neisseria, Bordetella, Legionella, Brucella, Corynebacterium, Helicobacter, Mycobacterium, Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Helicobacter, Mycoplasma, Chlamydiaceae, Rickettsiales, Spirochetales, Clostridium, Bacillus.

Viruses

Structure, characteristics, and classification of viruses.
Replication strategies and mechanisms of the different classes of DNA and RNA viruses.
Pathogenesis of viral infections and damage to the host cell.
Host defences against viral infections (interferon).
Bacteriophages.
Prions.
Cultivation of viruses.
Mechanisms of action and spectrum of activity of the main antiviral drugs.

Systematic virology of the main viral pathogens of humans

Taxonomy, characteristics, pathogenicity, main diseases, prevention, and treatment of the genera Poxvirus, Herpesvirus, Adenovirus, Papillomavirus, Paramyxovirus, Togavirus, Orthomyxovirus, Rhabdovirus, Rhinovirus, Poliovirus, Picornaviridae, Papovaviridae, Parvoviridae, Coronavirus, Filovirus, Lentivirus (HIV) and the major hepatitis viruses (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, HEV, HGV).

Fungi

Taxonomy, classification, morphology, and reproduction.
Classification of mycoses (superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic).
Immunosuppression and opportunistic mycoses.
Fungal toxicology (mushroom poisoning and mycotoxins).
The main fungi of medical interest: Candida, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, dimorphic fungi, dermatophytes, zygomycetes.
Mechanisms of action and spectrum of activity of the main antifungal drugs.

Protozoa

Taxonomy, classification, morphology, and reproduction.
Main parasitic protozoa of medical interest: intestinal and genitourinary flagellates, haemoflagellates, amoebae, sporozoans, ciliates.
Mechanisms of action and spectrum of activity of the main antiprotozoal drugs.

Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases associated with climate change and globalization.

Textbook Information

Carlone N., Pompei R., Tullio V., Microbiologia Farmaceutica, 3rd edition, EdiSES Università.
Antonelli G., Clementi M., Pozzi G., Rossolini G.M., Principi di Microbiologia Medica, 4th edition, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana.

Students may choose either of the two recommended textbooks or use another university-level microbiology textbook, provided that it adequately covers the course contents. Additional supplementary teaching materials may be prepared by the instructors and made available on the Studium platform.

Course Planning

	Subjects	Text References
1	The course is organized according to a progressive structure, beginning with the acquisition of the fundamentals of general microbiology and moving towards the study of topics of greater medical and pharmaceutical relevance. Fundamentals of general microbiology The first part of the course provides the basic knowledge required to understand the organization, physiology, genetics, metabolism, growth, and survival strategies of microorganisms. This knowledge forms the basis for understanding the subsequent topics in medical and pharmaceutical microbiology. Microorganisms, host, and health The second part focuses on the relationships between microorganisms and the human host, progressing from colonization and transmission to mechanisms of pathogenicity and the host response. The functions of the human microbiota and the consequences of alterations in its balance are also considered. Diagnostic and pharmaceutical microbiology A subsequent section is devoted to the application of microbiological knowledge in diagnostic and pharmaceutical settings, with particular emphasis on the identification of microorganisms, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, control of microbial contamination, and the principles of sterilization and disinfection as applied to pharmaceutical products and environments. Antibacterial drugs and systematic bacteriology The study of bacteria progresses from a general section dealing with the principles of antibacterial drug action and antibiotic resistance to a systematic section devoted to the main bacterial pathogens of humans. For each group, microbiological characteristics are integrated with aspects related to pathogenicity, associated diseases, and antimicrobial susceptibility or resistance. General and systematic virology Similarly, virology is developed from a general section, necessary to understand viral structure, replication, pathogenesis, and the principles of antiviral therapy, to a systematic section concerning the main human pathogenic viruses, their clinical relevance, and the prevention and treatment of viral infections. Mycology and protozoology The study of fungi and protozoa begins with their general biological characteristics and progresses to medically relevant aspects, including the main associated diseases and the principles of antifungal and antiprotozoal therapy. Emerging and re-emerging infections The final part of the course integrates the knowledge acquired by addressing emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases and changes in their distribution in relation to climate change and globalization.	For all topics covered in the course, students may refer, at their discretion, to one of the textbooks listed in the “Reference Texts” section. The course content may be supplemented with teaching materials made available on the Studium platform.

Learning Assessment

Learning Assessment Procedures

Learning assessment is carried out through a final oral examination aimed at verifying the achievement of the expected learning outcomes and the level of knowledge and understanding of the course content. The assessment takes into account the accuracy, completeness, and relevance of the answers, the ability to apply the knowledge acquired, and the ability to establish connections among the different topics of the syllabus. Particular attention is given to the ability to relate the characteristics of microorganisms to their pathogenicity and modes of transmission, and to interpret the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance and their therapeutic implications. Analytical and synthesis skills, the ability to critically discuss issues related to the appropriate use of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance, the appropriate use of scientific terminology, and the clarity and coherence of the presentation are also assessed. These aspects also make it possible to evaluate the ability to apply microbiological knowledge in relation to the future professional responsibilities of the pharmacist.

The final grade is expressed on a 30-point scale and takes into account the overall quality and completeness of the knowledge acquired, the ability to apply and integrate such knowledge, independent judgement, the ability to establish connections among different topics, and the quality of the presentation.

The following criteria are applied in assigning the final grade:

Exam not passed: insufficient knowledge of the fundamental course content, poor or absent ability to use the specific terminology of the discipline, and inadequate ability to apply the acquired knowledge.

Grade 18–21: essential knowledge of the course content, modest ability to integrate and critically analyse information, sufficiently clear presentation, and limited command of scientific terminology.

Grade 22–25: satisfactory knowledge of the course content, adequate ability to integrate and analyse information, although not always in a fully coherent manner, and fairly clear presentation with a satisfactory command of the specific terminology.

Grade 26–28: good knowledge of the course content, good ability to integrate information, critically analyse topics, and establish connections among them, with clear presentation and appropriate use of scientific terminology.

Grade 29–30 with honours: thorough and comprehensive knowledge of the course content, a high level of integration and critical analysis, autonomy in applying the acquired knowledge to microbiological and pharmaceutical issues, and excellent communication skills and command of scientific terminology.

Exam dates are published on the Degree Programme website: https://www.dsf.unict.it/it/corsi/lm-13/calendario-esami.

Learning assessment may also be carried out online, should circumstances require it.

To ensure equal opportunities and in compliance with current legislation, interested students may request an individual meeting to define any appropriate compensatory and/or dispensatory measures in relation to the learning objectives of the course and their specific needs. Students may also contact Prof. Santina Chiechio (santina.chiechio@unict.it), the CInAP representative for the Department of Drug and Health Sciences.

Examples of frequently asked questions and / or exercises

Describe the structure of the bacterial cell, highlighting the main differences between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Explain the main mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria and discuss their role in the spread of antibiotic resistance.
Describe the growth curve of a bacterial population and explain which physical and environmental factors can influence it.
Explain the stages of the infectious process and the role of virulence factors.
Describe the human microbiota and explain the meaning of dysbiosis and eubiosis, as well as the role of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics.
Explain the main methods used to assess bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics and the significance of antimicrobial resistance.
Compare sterilization and disinfection, describing their main methods and applications in the pharmaceutical field.
Describe the biological characteristics, main pathogenicity factors, and associated diseases of one of the medically relevant bacteria covered during the course.
Describe the structure and main replication strategies of DNA and RNA viruses and explain the general principles of antiviral drug action.
Highlight the distinctive biological characteristics of fungi and describe the different types of mycoses.

Degree Course in

Pharmacy